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Curriculum Focus

Lower Primary: Stage A1

Speaking and listening

Communication Teachers communicate with and teach students through oral English using enjoyable, stimulating activities, within the clear context of everyday classroom life. Students are supported through the use of a variety of non-verbal and visual cues. Teachers control the complexity of the English they use with students, using known vocabulary and sentence structures in new situations. They encourage students to be creative with their English resources and to adapt them to new communicative and functional demands. Teachers ensure that new language is modelled, taught and practised in similar contexts and then recycled in new contexts. For example, English that is modelled and used in a shared experience is recycled in games and reading and writing activities. When students use their newly acquired English in new ways to create new meanings, their efforts are encouraged and rewarded, as long as communication and meaning are sustained. Through interacting in English when working and playing with others, students are encouraged to talk simply about themselves and the learning and creative activities they are involved in at school. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Students understand, from their first-language experiences, that different situations call for the use of different styles of language or manner of approach. Through communicating with a range of people in a wide range of situations in the classroom, and through teacher modelling of appropriate English for these situations, they begin to learn that the same is true for English. They start to adapt their English repertoire and non-verbal resources to respond appropriately to these differing learning and social situations. Teachers provide intonational and contextual clues for meaning when conversing or reading to students. Teachers discuss with students, at a basic level, the need for common courtesy phrases and the contexts for using them, and give clear consistent models to follow. Students talk simply about the effects of non-verbal language on others, and they use non-verbal language conventions to enhance the meaning of their own spoken texts. Linguistic structures and features Teachers accept and respond to students’ developing oral English. They scaffold the talk, providing students with correct models, and extending what it is students are already able to say in English. They focus students incidentally on correct grammatical features and vocabulary without lessening the communicative value of the students’ own forms of English. They restate when students indicate they do not understand, and they use non-verbal language to support the interaction. Teachers encourage students to play and experiment with the sounds, rhythms and meanings of English through songs, rhymes, repetitive stories and word play. Teachers also assist students to perceive patterns in English at both the grammatical and phonological levels through these kinds of activities. Strategies Teachers encourage students in their efforts to communicate in English and through non-verbal language. As students learn to listen to English for meaning by focusing on contextual clues, they become more able to participate with purpose in classroom activities and routines. Teachers respond positively to students’ attempts to communicate and provide support by scaffolding, expanding and restating students’ English in conventional forms. Teachers modify their own language to match the level of understanding of the students, while still challenging them with new and more complex forms. Teachers understand that students are employing generalisations they have made about the way English works at the grammatical level as they move from formulaic to creative utterances. They also understand that students are developing useful coping strategies to help them to sustain and enhance their communication with others in the classroom and playground. Teachers encourage students to use their first language to clarify and reflect on tasks with other learners, in both formal and informal classroom contexts.

Reading

Communication Teachers introduce students to a wide range of carefully chosen and stimulating fictional and factual texts, including picture story books and early reading materials. These simple, repetitive, and well-illustrated texts are used as the basis for early literacy activities, such as art and drama activities. Teachers read often to students, ensuring they experience the excitement and satisfaction of understanding stories and books in English, as they develop understanding about the reading process. Students begin to talk simply about the texts they are reading and hearing read aloud. They retell simple stories and incidents which occur in texts they have encountered in class or at home. Students also read everyday class and environmental texts, such as signs, labels and shared texts. The texts that students work with in class are chosen to match their learning needs and their stage of oral English development. Teachers guide students’ own choices of texts, ensuring that a wide range of accessible texts is available in the classroom, including if possible, texts in the students’ first language. Aspects of language Contextual understanding As students are introduced to a wide range of texts, they begin to learn that written texts are organised differently and use different language according to purpose and audience. With teacher assistance, students talk simply about who texts are written for and what they are written about. Students also become aware that some texts are factual and others fictional or imaginative, and they are encouraged to distinguish and talk simply about the ‘real’ and the ‘not real’ in texts. Through talking simply about the kinds of texts different people read, students begin to learn that texts are structured to meet the needs of the reader. By working with the written messages they see around them, students also become aware of environmental texts and the messages they convey. Linguistic structures and features Teachers ensure that students are provided with culturally inclusive, simple, supportive texts where the meaning is well supported by illustrations and layout. They ensure that texts use English in a natural way that will help students to make connections between their oral repertoires and print. Through language experience activities and shared book reading, students begin to understand how the writing system of English is structured, and how texts are presented when in book form. Activities such as alphabet games, phonemic awareness activities, or word and sentence matching, focus students onto the word and letter level of texts, and help them begin to learn the sound–letter relationships of English. As students recognise phrases/formulas, single words or letters in texts, teachers help them to focus on these by recording their observations on word lists, sound charts, or personal dictionaries, which students can use for reference. Strategies Teachers model and encourage strategies that will assist students to read, understand and to choose appropriate reading texts. In shared or guided reading activities students imitate the teacher’s model of how to use text cues to gain meaning from texts. Teachers talk with students about illustrations, diagrams and photographs, and model the way these provide contextual clues to meaning. They often read the students’ favorite texts to them. Such well-known texts are used as the basis for activities, such as role-play or choral reading, that assist students to access these texts for themselves. Teachers use intonation to emphasise key words, key phrases or repetition when reading to students. They talk often to students about sound and letter or sentence patterns in the texts they are reading together, and encourage students to make similar observations.

Writing

Communication Students are introduced to early experiences in writing in English that will help them to develop understanding about the writing process. They use their developing English to engage in many different classroom and individual writing and drawing activities. They compose and dictate their own short texts, writing about shared or personal experiences, and using drawings to expand on the text. Students are encouraged to contribute to simple shared writing activities, such as recording basic observations or shared experiences. They are also encouraged to write imaginative texts or innovate on the writing of others. Teachers use these texts as the basis for activities, such as word and sentence matching, sequencing pictures of processes or events, or illustrating sentences. Students are encouraged to write and to share written messages in their first language. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Students draw, write or create their own simple messages and narratives, building on their basic understanding of the purposes that English classroom and personal texts fulfil, for example, a narrative to entertain or inform, a simple report to exchange information, a list to record information. Teachers assist this process by consistently modelling writing in class for a range of authentic purposes, such as making a birthday card, writing a sign or writing a shared account of an activity. They talk simply with students about the audience they are writing for, and what they are writing about. Students are given opportunities to experiment with the presentation of basic texts for a range of real purposes, such as invitations, pages for a shared book or a list of favorite foods. Linguistic structures and features The simple texts that students are writing or dictating show that they are beginning to use their knowledge of writing in English and their still limited repertoires of spoken English in novel and original ways. As students learn English letter names and sounds, they begin to experiment with representing new words phonically. They dictate the basic ideas and key words of a text for the teacher to write for them. They enhance their texts with illustrations or simple diagrams and they copy short texts accurately, as they learn how to form letters and how to place text appropriately on the page. By modelling and talking simply about the writing and presentation of texts, teachers show students that text meaning is enhanced by the way that texts are presented, and students start to use some of the features of modelled texts in their own writing. Strategies During modelled writing activities, students are introduced to early strategies for writing texts for some basic classroom and personal purposes. Working with the teacher, students innovate on basic texts, illustrating or copying the new text to produce classroom ‘published’ texts. They are encouraged to elaborate on their own texts with illustrations or with additional text scribed by the teacher. Students are explicitly introduced to correct letter formations, including appropriate starting points for letters. They are also introduced to a wide range of implements and materials for writing and drawing. Students use some basic computer applications for writing, presenting or illustrating their written texts.

Lower Primary: Stage A2

Speaking and listening

Communication Students are provided with a wide variety of opportunities and contexts in which to listen to and talk to others. Teachers scaffold the talk, helping students to articulate and share experiences, ideas and opinions in English as they talk about their own personal experiences and listen to those of others. Teachers support students in speaking about experiences they have had in other times and places. Students’ interpersonal English language skills develop as they work in pairs or small group contexts, negotiating tasks and sharing activities. They learn English incidentally through small group work with English-speaking peers, as well as in more focused English language teaching groups with teachers. They follow instructions and classroom procedures, carry out tasks, play games, and talk about class topics. Aspects of language Contextual understanding As students become involved in social and learning interactions for a variety of purposes and audiences, they add to the range of situations they are able to negotiate in English. Their speaking and listening repertoires enable them to interact appropriately in known situations, as well as to handle many new situations. Teachers provide a variety of models of spoken interaction, both formal and informal. Role-play, drama and participation in other interactive situations, such as group work, develop communicative strategies, for example, turn taking or the use of intonation or gesture to enhance meaning. Teachers discuss with students the way in which spoken texts are structured for different purposes, and how word choice can affect meaning. Linguistic structures and features Students combine a variety of learned formulas and creative utterances as they work out the patterns of English. Teachers support students’ developing oral skills by providing correct language models while still accepting students’ utterances and responding to the meaning. Students are introduced to new vocabulary for new situations and topics, which is recycled in many different contexts. By involving students in many opportunities to use their developing oral skills in a wide variety of contexts and activities, such as question games, oral cloze, songs, stories and rhymes, teachers ensure that students are able to use their English creatively in new situations. Oral activities also help students to develop appropriate pronunciation. Strategies As students work and play in the classroom, they develop new strategies in oral communication, to communicate more effectively and to maintain interaction with others. Students interact in many different contexts in work and play, including individual, pair and group activities. In order to assist students to communicate in these differing contexts, functional language is modelled and students are explicitly introduced to the kinds of functions that will help them to sustain interaction, for example, some of the language of negotiation or clarification. They reflect on and evaluate these strategies through class or group discussion. This kind of language can be recorded and practised in role-play situations. Students use visual materials and real objects to support their talk, for example, when taking part in a discussion. Students are also encouraged to use their first language where appropriate to clarify or discuss.

Reading

Communication Teachers introduce students to a wide variety of reading texts created for their interest level, that are suitable to their English language level. These include imaginative texts, simple informational texts about classroom topics or topics that interest them, and texts that deal with personal relationships. Teachers prepare students for texts using strategies, such as concept mapping, bundling information and setting the context using pictures and realia, to relate new information to their background experiences. Students are encouraged to talk or write about these texts. Students respond to texts through art, drama, movement and music. By working with a wide range of texts in class and group activities, students enjoy and appreciate aspects of text, such as alliteration and rhyme, simile and metaphor, humor and pathos. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Teachers introduce students to a wide variety of texts both factual and fictional, written for a variety of clear purposes and audiences. Students work with accessible, culturally appropriate texts at their language and interest level. Students are explicitly introduced to different types of texts and discuss how they differ according to purpose and audience, for example, the difference between a story and a recipe. Comparisons are made between simple fictional and factual texts. Students begin to understand the role of layout and presentation in different texts, such as the differences between factual texts and picture-story books. They are encouraged to share ideas and impressions about characters, illustrations, or the story line. Linguistic structures and features Students begin to use their knowledge of English sentence structure to read new words, and to confirm the predictions they make about meanings. Their developing knowledge of letter–sound relationships also assists them to read new words. Students add to their repertoire of sight words and phrases, as they both learn more English and read more texts. Their understanding of letter–sound relationships in English is enhanced through activities that develop phonemic awareness, such as listening games, speech rhymes, making word family lists, alphabet activities and simple dictionary work, based around words in students’ oral repertoires. Students start to develop a metalanguage for talking about the texts they are reading. Strategies Through reading a wide variety of informative and enjoyable texts at school, students are introduced to effective reading strategies. As they take part in activities, such as choral reading, reading aloud and silent reading, students are exposed to good reading models. They are given the opportunity to read for their own purposes, or to determine specific information. Teachers model strategies for reading different texts for different purposes. They guide students in their choice of reading material by modelling strategies for monitoring text difficulty and interest level. Students are encouraged to integrate their developing understanding of syntactic and semantic cues with letter–sound knowledge of English to read more challenging texts.

Writing

Communication Students are encouraged to communicate their ideas, opinions and feelings through writing for formal or informal purposes, for example, keeping simple diaries, writing letters, making plans. Students communicate basic information when involved in activities based on classroom topics and activities, such as excursions, experiments or topics of interest. In groups and individually, students write and produce their own imaginative texts which take a variety of forms, such as books, dialogues, posters, cards or illustrations. They begin to explore features of such writing in their own writing through activities, such as individual and group innovation on well-known texts, drama activities and free exploration of a wide range of media that can enhance the presentation of their writing. Aspects of language Contextual understanding As students plan and write texts according to particular classroom or social purposes and for particular audiences, they begin to structure their texts more purposefully. Teachers constantly model writing a wide variety of texts in order to reinforce the concept that writing changes according to the situation, for example, stories, recipes, factual reports. Shared or modelled writing activities allow students to be involved in the construction of a text and can provide a framework for their own writing. Students talk about their writing with others, in order to help clarify and refine the content, organisation and layout of their texts, and they begin to understand that written texts usually need to be planned, edited and presented. Linguistic structures and features As with reading, students continue to develop their understanding of the letter–sound relationships of English and they use this understanding of patterns to write new words. Their developing oral base and reading repertoire give students a continually developing range of descriptive and specialised vocabulary which they can use to construct their own texts. Students are explicitly introduced to some of the terminology needed to talk about elements of their writing at the sentence, paragraph and text level. Strategies Students are provided with opportunities to plan and write a variety of simple texts for different purposes. The planning and construction of texts is modelled and discussed individually and in small groups. Teachers ensure that students are given the opportunity to talk before they are expected to write, particularly in situations where they are presenting new information. Students begin to develop strategies that enable them to extend their writing vocabulary, for example, keeping word lists related to particular topics or areas of interest. They are encouraged in their attempts to spell unfamiliar words, using their developing knowledge of the letter–sound relationships in English. After modelling and discussion, students carry out simple editing and redrafting of their own writing.

Lower Primary: Stage BL

Speaking and listening

Communication Teachers ensure that students experience a wide variety of situations and purposes for hearing and using English. They interact with other students in social situations through work and play, expressing their wants and needs simply and understanding the needs of others. They talk simply about their English learning and classroom learning, and they use simple English in a wide range of classroom-based imaginative and aesthetic contexts, talking about the imaginative and creative activities of themselves and others. Teachers control the complexity of the English they use with students, using known vocabulary and structures in new situations. They encourage students to be creative with their English resources and to adapt them to new communicative and functional demands. Students are provided with correct models within the context of communicative activities and classroom organisational routines. The English they are learning to speak becomes the basis for what they are reading and writing in English. Teachers accept and respond to students’ oral English, scaffolding and supporting talk. They restate when students indicate that they do not understand and they employ non-verbal language to support the interaction. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Through their first language learning students already understand that different situations may require different language choices. By taking part in activities for a range of classroom purposes, students begin to adapt their basic oral English repertoire and non-verbal resources to respond appropriately to different social and school situations. By listening for intonational clues for meaning, students begin to understand how English intonation and stress assist meaning. Teachers give students models of English to follow, where the context for the use of particular language is clear. Teachers discuss with students, at a basic level, the need for common courtesy phrases and the contexts for using them. Linguistic structures and features Teachers focus students incidentally onto correct grammatical features and vocabulary without lessening the communicative value of students’ own forms of English. Students begin to recognise patterns of English features through rhymes, games, songs and repetitive texts. Through activities students are taught the English necessary for performing some of the basic functions of classroom learning, such as comparing and clarifying. Teachers ensure that students understand that although communication is the main aim of an interchange, accurate usage will enhance communication. Strategies Teachers encourage students to take risks with their spoken communication. They respond positively to students’ attempts at communicating in English and they provide support by scaffolding and restating students’ English in correct forms. They encourage students to use non-verbal communication to enhance their spoken texts, and to focus on the non-verbal communication of others. Teachers modify the language they use with students to match the level of English of the students, while still challenging them with new and more complex forms.

Reading

Communication Teachers introduce students to a wide range of stimulating, simple fictional and factual texts, including picture story books and early reading materials, making careful selection to ensure that texts are appropriate to the students’ age and interest level. Texts used contain predictable, repetitive English which students can easily follow. These simple, repetitive, culturally appropriate and well-illustrated texts are used as the basis for early literacy activities, such as art and drama activities. Teachers model reading in shared reading activities where students can see how written text relates to spoken text. Students begin to talk simply about the texts they are reading and hearing read aloud. They retell simple stories and incidents which occur in texts they have encountered in class. Students also read everyday environmental and class texts, such as signs, labels and shared texts. Teachers guide students’ choices of texts for their own reading, ensuring that a wide range of accessible texts is available in the classroom, including if possible, texts in the students’ first language. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Students are becoming aware that written texts are structured in certain ways depending on their purpose and audience. By observing and talking about the print they see around them, the various kinds of texts become more familiar. Through working with a wide range of texts, students become aware that some texts are factual and others fictional or imaginative, and they are encouraged to distinguish and talk simply about the ‘real’ and the ‘not real’ in texts. When reading, browsing through or listening to accessible texts read aloud, students talk simply about who they are written for and what they are written about. By working with, and talking about the written messages they see around them, students become aware of environmental texts and the messages they convey, and teachers use these texts for beginning reading activities. Linguistic structures and features Teachers ensure that students are provided with supportive texts where the meaning is well supported by illustrations and layout. They ensure that texts use English in a natural way that will help to enhance and make connections with students’ oral repertoires. Through activities such as shared book and language experience, students begin to understand how the writing system of English is structured. Activities, such as alphabet games, phonemic awareness activities, or word and sentence matching, focus students onto the word and letter level of texts, and help students to begin to understand the sound–letter relationships of English. As students begin to recognise phrases, single words or letters in texts, teachers help them to focus on these by recording them on word lists, sound charts, or personal dictionaries, which students use for reference when reading and writing. Activities focus on features of print, for example, specific letters in a word/sentence, identifying initial letters of names, indicating the last word in a sentence. Strategies Teachers model and encourage strategies that will assist students to read, understand and to choose appropriate reading texts. In shared reading situations students imitate the teacher’s model on how to use text cues to gain meaning from texts. Teachers talk with students about illustrations, diagrams and photographs, and model the way these provide contextual clues to meaning. They often read the students’ favorite texts to them, for example, repetitive texts, picture story books or folk tales. Such well-loved texts are used as the basis for activities, such as role-play or choral reading, that assist students to access these texts for themselves. Teachers use intonation to emphasise key words, key phrases or repetition when reading to students. They talk often to students about sound and sentence patterns in the texts they are reading together, and encourage students to make similar observations. Teachers constantly revise and recycle texts in a range of activities.

Writing

Communication Students are introduced to early experiences in writing in English that will help them to develop understanding about the writing process. They use their developing English resources to engage in many different classroom and individual writing and drawing activities. They compose and dictate their own beginning texts, writing about shared or personal experiences. Students are encouraged to contribute to simple shared writing activities, such as recording basic observations or shared experiences. They are also encouraged to write imaginative texts or innovate on the writing of others. Teachers use these texts as the basis for activities, such as word and sentence matching, sequencing pictures of processes or events, or illustrating sentences. Students are encouraged to respond to texts through drawing or writing, using a form with which they feel comfortable, for example, labelling, copying words or phrases from the text. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Students draw, write or create their own simple messages and narratives, building on their basic understanding of the purposes that English classroom and personal texts fulfil, for example, a story to entertain, a simple narrative to exchange information, a list to record information. Teachers assist this process by consistently modelling writing in class for a range of authentic purposes, such as making a birthday card, writing a sign or writing a shared account of an activity. They talk simply with students about the audience they are writing for, and what they are writing about. Students are given opportunities to experiment with the presentation of basic texts for a range of real purposes, such as invitations, pages for a shared book or a list of favorite foods. By modelling and talking simply about the writing and presentation of texts, teachers show students that text meaning is enhanced by the way that texts are presented. Linguistic structures and features The simple texts that students are writing or dictating show that they are beginning to use their knowledge of writing in English and their still limited repertoires of spoken English in novel and original ways. As students learn English letter names and sounds, they begin to experiment with representing new words by building up the word one sound at a time. They enhance their texts with illustrations or simple diagrams and they copy short texts accurately, as they learn how to form letters and how to place text appropriately on the page. They dictate the basic ideas and key vocabulary items of a text for the teacher to write for them. Strategies During modelled writing activities, students are introduced to early strategies for writing texts for some basic classroom and personal purposes. Students start to use some of the features of modelled texts in their own writing. Working with the teacher, students innovate on basic texts, illustrating or copying the new text to produce classroom ‘published’ texts. Students are encouraged to informally talk about conventions of print, for example, capital letters, simple punctuation. Students may require much positive feedback and reinforcement of their efforts. They are encouraged to elaborate on their own texts with illustrations or with additional text scribed by the teacher. Students are explicitly introduced to correct letter formations, including appropriate starting points for letters and numbers. They are also introduced to a wide range of implements and materials for writing and drawing. Students use some basic computer word processing applications for writing, presenting or illustrating their written texts. Students develop systematic ways of recording words and language resources through the use of, for example, a journal, a class-produced dictionary, a class-produced topic book, a letter–sound book. They also use classroom charts, lists and displays to find words to include in their writing.

Middle Upper Primary: Stage B1

Speaking and listening

Communication Students listen to and use English for a wide variety of different classroom and social purposes. Students talk simply about their English learning and their classroom learning in the other KLAs. They interact with other students in social situations through work and play, expressing their wants and needs simply and understanding the needs of others. They use simple English in a wide range of classroom-based imaginative and aesthetic contexts, talking about the imaginative and creative activities of themselves and others. Teachers encourage students to be creative with their English resources and to adapt them to new communicative and functional demands. Students are provided with appropriate models within the context of communicative activities and classroom organisational routines. The English they are learning to speak becomes the basis for them to begin to learn to read and write in English. Teachers accept and respond to students’ oral English, scaffolding and supporting talk. They restate when students indicate that they do not understand and they employ non-verbal language to support the interaction. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Through their first language learning, students already understand that different situations may require the use of different kinds of language. By taking part in activities for a range of classroom purposes, students begin to adapt their basic oral English repertoire and non-verbal resources to respond appropriately to different social and school situations. By listening for intonational clues for meaning when conversing or listening to text read aloud, students begin to understand how English intonation and stress assist meaning. Teachers provide clear models of English to follow, where the context for the use of particular language is obvious, and specifically teach the English needed, for example, common courtesy phrases and conversational markers and the contexts for using them. Students talk simply about the effects of non-verbal language on others, and how non-verbal language can enhance the meaning of spoken texts. Linguistic structures and features Teachers accept and respond to students’ oral English, scaffolding and supporting talk and providing students with correct models within the context of communicative activities and classroom organisational routines. They restate when students indicate non-understanding and they use non-verbal language to support the interaction. They focus students incidentally on correct grammatical features and vocabulary while responding to the communicative meaning of the students’ own forms of English. Students are taught the features necessary for performing some of the basic functions of classroom learning, such as comparing and clarifying. Students begin to recognise patterns in English features through games, rhymes, songs and repetitive texts. Strategies Teachers encourage students to take risks with their spoken communication. They respond positively to students’ attempts at communication in English and they provide support by scaffolding and restating students’ English in the correct forms. They encourage students to use non-verbal communication to enhance their spoken texts, and to focus on the non-verbal communication of others. Teachers modify the language they use with students to match the level of English of the students, while still introducing them to new and more complex forms. Students understand that accurate usage will enhance communication, but that meaning can be negotiated.

Reading

Communication Teachers ensure that students have success in their early reading in English, involving them in reading as part of everyday classroom activities. Students read and listen to a wide range of simple, repetitive, and well-illustrated English texts, both published materials and class texts. These include imaginative, factual and fictional texts, such as picture story books, and beginning reading materials. The texts chosen cover immediate needs texts, such as classroom labels and instructions, and topics being covered in class, as well as literary texts. These texts are used as the basis for vocabulary development activities, matching sentences to illustrations, sequencing processes or series of events, simple comprehension or cloze exercises, as well as for drama or art activities. These activities help students to understand texts mainly at the literal level, but also help them to discern more complex meanings and text structures. Students learn that syntactic, semantic and sound–letter cues are important for making meaning from text, and that although they may be able to fluently read or decode texts in English, understanding the content is the main purpose of reading. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Students show an emerging understanding that texts are differently organised and use different language according to purpose and audience. When reading or listening to accessible texts read aloud, students talk simply about the purpose and audience, taking into account text content and layout. Teachers assist students to become aware of the differences between texts by discussing the topics, layouts, structures and purposes of texts. By working with a wide range of books and reading materials, students become aware that books are often published in a series that usually has similar characteristics, such as layout or level of text difficulty. They also become aware of particular authors and illustrators. Linguistic structures and features Teachers ensure that students are provided with reading texts where the meaning is well supported by illustrations and layout. Such texts use natural, everyday English and repetitive structures. Students complete activities that focus them on the word and letter level of text. These activities, such as identifying and collecting word families or matching word patterns, assist students as they begin to recognise repeated phrases/formulas in texts, and common English letter patterns in words. Students are also involved in activities such as reconstructing text, that focus them on basic cohesive devices in texts, such as conjunctions, and reference through pronouns. Strategies Teachers model and encourage strategies that will assist students to read using a range of cues, and to understand and choose appropriate texts. They provide activities that encourage students to read for meaning, focusing on semantic and syntactic cues as well as graphophonic cues. Teachers help students to perceive patterns of syntax, text organisation and letter groups in English that will assist students to access texts. They model and encourage strategies which will help students to access texts independently. Teachers read texts to students, emphasising key words, patterns or repetitions to assist students’ comprehension. Contextual clues which enhance meaning, such as illustrations or diagrams which are used to enhance meanings in the text, are brought to students’ attention. Teachers assist students to make appropriate choices of reading materials by assessing text difficulty through looking at the support given by illustrations, and by the size and amount of print, and layout.

Writing

Communication Teachers ensure that students have success in their introduction to writing in English. Students use their limited resources to engage in many different writing activities as part of everyday classroom activities. Students write their own simple informational texts and record basic observations in written and graphic formats. They write about themselves, their activities and their personal interests and opinions. They write their own simple imaginative texts, and they innovate creatively on the writing of others. They base the structure and vocabulary of these texts on oral and written texts modelled in class. Teachers model writing often to students through whole class shared writing and other activities, talking about the texts as they are written. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Students write their own simple texts for many different purposes, based around classroom activities, using some of the basic features that distinguish published texts, for example, simple contents page, cover and title for a class-shared book. As students’ English repertoires expand they become increasingly able to fulfil simple writing tasks for an expanding range of basic purposes, such as informing, recording information or instructing. Teachers model a consistent approach to writing for different purposes, modelling text structure and features, such as the use of imperatives in a procedural text. Students base the writing of some of their own simple texts on models they are shown in class, or on models found when reading. Linguistic structures and features Through their writing, students are showing new and original ways of using their knowledge of writing in English and their still limited repertoires of English vocabulary and understanding of grammatical features. They understand that text meaning is enhanced through the way texts are presented, and they present their texts in ways that are increasingly appropriate to their understanding of the task. Students take part in jointly constructing texts with the teacher and are shown the way in which both sentence-level and whole-text level decisions need to be taken to produce a text that fulfils the given writing task. As students write texts for many different purposes they begin to observe the kinds of structures that occur in different kinds of writing. Strategies Teachers model many of the strategies that will help students to represent their thoughts, experiences and ideas through written English. They help students to develop systematic strategies to support their writing, such as keeping spelling books where useful words are recorded alphabetically, or in themes. Students experiment with spelling new words, using their growing knowledge of English spelling patterns. Many strategies for experimenting with the writing of texts may be new to students, and teachers allow them time to incorporate such strategies into their own way of working. Students begin to understand that writing a finished text is a process that may involve planning, some rewriting or editing to improve accuracy of grammatical features, content, meaning or spelling, depending on the purpose and audience.

Middle Upper Primary: Stage B2

Speaking and listening

Communication Students communicate in a wide variety of contexts. They develop the oral English language skills needed to participate effectively in the classroom, in small group tasks and when presenting information to others. They talk about their own personal experiences and listen to those of others. Through a range of classroom activities based around the key learning areas, teachers model a variety of imaginative and factual spoken texts that students need to participate fully in school activities. Students work in a variety of group contexts where they are encouraged to listen to, question, clarify and report. Students listen to, give and follow instructions to carry out tasks, play games, and follow classroom procedures. They listen to a range of audiovisual texts to gain and communicate specific information. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Students use a wide range of spoken text types and a variety of communicative formulas to interact for specific purposes and audiences. Role-play, drama, cooperative small group activities and participation in other interactive situations develop communicative strategies, for example, turn-taking, topic selection and topic change. Students become familiar with and able to use these appropriate responses and interactive devices in conversation. Through discussion, students develop a deeper understanding of the role of non-verbal behaviour in interactions in English. Teachers read aloud and introduce students to a wide variety of audiovisual texts, such as tapes of conversations, videos, TV programs and interactive media, and discuss the appropriateness of the text to its audience. Students talk to explore and clarify ideas as preparation for oral reports or writing. Linguistic structures and features Teachers introduce students to new sentence and text structures and vocabulary for specific tasks, activities or topics, and students use their developing English vocabulary and knowledge about English in real classroom contexts. Students are given feedback that helps them to extend and refine their speaking skills in a wide variety of contexts. Teachers provide a variety of models of spoken interaction, both formal and informal, and guidance in terms of features, such as pronunciation. Students begin to refine their oral English language features according to the particular social and cultural situation. Strategies Teachers model, revise and recycle vocabulary and sentence structures, and create opportunities for students to use and develop their oral English skills for a range of purposes. A supportive environment is created in which students feel confident to take risks with oral English and to communicate through a broadening range of functions. Students are encouraged to continue to use their first language in order to clarify new or difficult concepts. Teachers model pronunciation and encourage students to participate in activities that develop rhythm, intonation and fluency, for example, chants, repetitive rhymes. They are aware that students may have been exposed to differing prior learning and school experiences, and they may need to develop new strategies in order to participate in and maintain the kinds of interactions common to the classroom. Teachers actively model and role play with students those strategies that assist them to sustain and maintain communication in English. Students develop skills in presenting their ideas and describing and explaining their experiences through models of presentations, through explicit discussion of what makes particular interactions successful and through using scaffolds, such as key topic words, sentence beginnings and connecting words or phrases.

Reading

Communication Students read, listen to and discuss reading texts at their interest and skill level for enjoyment and information. They talk about the characters and plot in stories and the information they find in factual texts. Students become more able to choose appropriate reading texts for enjoyment or for information. Teachers prepare students for the language demands of unfamiliar reading tasks, and to develop basic problem solving and research skills. Students respond to written text through speech and writing, art, drama and music. Teachers monitor students’ understandings of text through these responses and through reading conferences. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Students are given the opportunity to listen to and read accessible texts written for a variety of purposes and audiences, for learning and for entertainment. Students become familiar with various types of texts, such as narratives or procedures, poems or dialogues. They identify different types of texts and how their linguistic structure and features differ according to purpose and audience. They become aware of how their own experiences and beliefs affect their response to texts. Students become familiar with texts from various cultures, such as folk tales or fables, and identify some of the features of similar text types. Linguistic structures and features Students share ideas and impressions of texts, focusing on the whole-text structure and the language features. They talk about content, illustrations and layout. Students participate in activities, such as story maps and shared book activities, in order to develop understanding of the cohesion of text, for example, the use of conjunctions and pronouns. Comparisons are made of simple factual texts to develop student awareness of different types of texts and the language appropriate to different text types. A metalanguage is developed to discuss features and organisation of texts, for example, headings, paragraphs. Students read more fluently as their understanding of English letter–sound relationships and sentence structure grows. Strategies Teachers assist students to locate appropriate books which are at their level of language and interest. Through exposure to a variety of text types students become more confident and familiar with different kinds of texts, choosing texts appropriately for difficulty level and for topic interest. Students participate in shared reading, individually reading aloud, and silent reading. They view texts, for example, videos in which the vocabulary and context have been introduced and discussed. Students attend to teacher modelling and demonstrations, to develop strategies such as skimming and scanning for locating information in texts. With the support of teacher prompts they increasingly integrate cue sources, such as their background knowledge, developing knowledge of sentence structure and letter sound relationships.

Writing

Communication Teachers model writing of various text types and encourage students to communicate ideas, opinions Ôæd feelings through writing for a variety of purposes and audiences, for example, diaries, letters, reports, recounts. Teachers provide students with opportunities to communicate information in writing based on real situations, for example, classroom activities, excursions, experiments and topics of interest. In groups and individually, students write imaginative texts which take a variety of forms, such as simple narratives, plays or poems. They innovate on known texts, such as folk tales or poems. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Teachers continue to model a variety of texts in order to reinforce the idea that there are different ways of communicating according to the audience and the purpose, for example, letters, reports, poems. Students plan and write texts according to specific purposes and audiences. They participate in shared writing activities in which they discuss the most appropriate organisation and format of a piece of writing. They understand that their writing has power to influence, entertain and inform others and that it records information for later use. Linguistic structures and features Teachers model the writing of more complex sentences and sequenced texts of different types. They focus on the characteristic structure and features of a text, providing criteria that can be used to discuss the student’s text. They provide scaffolds for students in writing texts that are planned, sequenced and organised. Through questioning and expanding students’ talk, teachers clarify the content of the writing task and model how this is written in English. Teachers provide frameworks, such as guiding questions or headings to support students in the writing task. They discuss features of the students’ writing and provide advice on appropriate structures and features used when composing different types of text. They encourage students to use conjunctions and appropriate sequence markers in their writing. Students become more specific in their use of vocabulary, punctuation and some grammatical forms, for example, articles, pronouns, descriptive vocabulary. Teachers model the redrafting and refining of texts to take account of linguistic structures and features and encourage and support students in their attempts to do this in their own writing. Strategies Students are provided with opportunities to write a variety of texts for different purposes. Teachers assist students to take part in shared group and individual writing activities by modelling the planning and construction of texts. Students develop strategies to extend their vocabulary, such as making word lists related to themes and are encouraged to use their knowledge of sound–letter patterns to spell unfamiliar words. After discussion, students are encouraged to carry out some initial editing and redrafting of their own writing and may use computers to do this. Students develop strategies for spelling, such as referring to word family lists, personal dictionaries and class word lists or print around the room. Understanding of the writing process is developed, from initial draft where meaning is most important to subsequent drafts where accuracy of spelling and punctuation is refined.

Middle Upper Primary: Stage B3

Speaking and listening

Communication Students speak and listen in a range of contexts, formal and informal, spontaneous, and planned and rehearsed. Students listen for the main ideas in spoken texts and relate information to peers and teachers. During group work students listen to and share ideas and opinions. They become more confident in initiating and maintaining spoken interaction. Their English becomes progressively more appropriate to the context and the task. Students can follow a sustained oral text, including those on audio or video tapes, and structure appropriate responses. They take part in sustained conversations, using a variety of discourse strategies, such as fillers and appropriate turn-taking strategies. Modelling and brainstorming of alternative vocabulary and expressions extend the students’ repertoire of spoken English and their understanding of unfamiliar topics. Teachers scaffold students’ talk, helping students create texts that are cohesive and include relevant detail. By making explicit the criteria for effective communication, teachers help students to evaluate their talk and that of their peers. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Teachers model a variety of texts for a range of purposes and provide opportunities for students to use these. Continued participation in role-play and drama based on formal and informal situations develops the students’ ability to use appropriate language according to context. Students are aware of some of the aspects of their speech which may need to change according to context, such as politeness and turn taking. They are able to discern and correct some errors and add essential details. Teachers and students develop a metalanguage to discuss English language use, identifying appropriate vocabulary and structures using simple media and everyday texts. Students are becoming more aware of the differences between formal and informal, spontaneous and rehearsed text and are able to select the appropriate English to respond. Linguistic structures and features Teachers ensure students take part in activities in a range of learning contexts, including using English to problem solve and to present information to others. Teachers provide students with models, such as sentence starters to assist them to begin and continue their texts in the appropriate register and tense. The range of functions required for students to access the classroom curriculum is specifically modelled, and the appropriateness of different ways of achieving the same function for different purposes and audiences is discussed, for example, arguing, persuading, justifying. Teachers ensure that students are introduced to new terminology for new topics. They introduce students to a range of vocabulary alternatives, and discuss shades of meaning. Teachers model appropriate stress, rhythm and intonation patterns. Students become more accurate in their pronunciation with continued practice and exposure to correct models. Strategies Teachers provide a range of language contexts, giving students the opportunity to talk with a variety of people and groups, both formally and informally. By providing activities in small group contexts, teachers encourage students to be confident, to initiate and maintain conversation and discussion, and to explore and clarify ideas. Teachers and students reflect on language use, developing a metalanguage to discuss the most appropriate and effective way of using English for a particular purpose. Teachers use visual support, such as pictures, to assist students as they listen, for example, when a new topic is begun. They assist students to develop strategies that prepare them to be active listeners, such as note taking, listening for the main ideas or responding to set questions. Students are encouraged to practise pronunciation of new words, and to be aware of where they may have particular pronunciation difficulties. Teachers guide students in planning and rehearsing spoken tasks and give them regular opportunities to use and rehearse new vocabulary and structures in role-play and short presentations.

Reading

Communication Teachers continue to provide students with a variety of accessible written texts across the key learning areas, and assist them to choose their own texts. They encourage students to listen and to read for meaning, communicating their impressions and opinions and listening to those of others. They consider the background knowledge and knowledge of English that is assumed in the texts they are using in the classroom and prepare students for those texts, extending their ability to read more demanding texts. Students select texts for a range of purposes, and their skills in communicating main ideas and gaining specific information from texts are extended through a range of activities, such as the use of three level reading guides. Students read and retell imaginative stories and give a personal response, for example, in a small group or with a partner. Teachers monitor students’ reading to ensure that they are reading for meaning at their level of comprehension, not simply decoding text. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Students are able to focus more critically on the purposes of texts and how texts position them as readers. They focus on the relationship of their own knowledge and understanding to information conveyed in the text. Teachers introduce students to a wide variety of texts from various cultures and encourage students to discuss the similarities and differences in their cultural perspectives. Teachers promote a climate of tolerance and respect for the ideas, opinions and cultural understandings of others and discuss with students the concept that people’s opinions about texts may vary. Teachers draw attention to the organisational patterns in texts written for a variety of purposes, and use strategies, such as producing concept maps, graphic outlines and structured overviews to help students access texts. Students in small and large groups are encouraged to read and talk about texts, their purposes, and the ways they are organised and presented. Linguistic structures and features Students read and discuss texts in groups and with the teacher, and participate in a variety of activities designed to develop awareness of structure at whole-text, paragraph and sentence level. They are introduced to a range of texts for different purposes and are encouraged to discuss their key features, vocabulary and ideas. Students are provided with models of sequenced texts of various types and styles and begin to recognise how text structures and features are used to make a text cohesive, and how this assists the reader. Teachers discuss the features of these texts, at the sentence level and at the paragraph level, for example, use of cohesive devices and reference items. Strategies Teachers model strategies that will help students read to learn. They support students to find the meanings of unfamiliar words or phrases by, for example, using a dictionary. They provide a variety of activities in which students identify and predict the meaning of unknown words from their context. Teachers model strategies for choosing texts for enjoyment and to extend students reading into more complex texts. Teachers plan activities where students read to collect data or information, locate specific information and identify the main ideas. Students locate information through contents pages, indexes and glossaries, and talk about the kind of information each one contains.

Writing

Communication Teachers provide opportunities for students to write in a wide variety of authentic contexts in the key learning areas. Students communicate more complex information in writing sustained texts, and are able to use language which is increasingly appropriate to the context. Teachers deconstruct and model the writing of different types of texts to stimulate students to write their own responses, for example, to write a report or to retell a story. Students’ own range of writing is extended to include various text types, initially based on models using familiar vocabulary and sentence structures, for example, reports, descriptions, procedural forms. Students are given the opportunity to communicate in personal writing, such as letters, journals or poems. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Students write in a variety of forms and for a range of audiences. They become more aware of the appropriateness of their own writing in fulfilling particular tasks. Teachers continue to model written examples of a variety of texts. Students compare and evaluate texts according to their purpose. They develop a more precise expressive and informational vocabulary and their language becomes more complex with increased understanding of structure. They are aware of the basic differences between a spoken and written text. Using published texts as models, students enhance their texts with diagrams, labels, headings, subheadings. Teachers provide guidance and consultation on punctuation, word order, sentence structure and use of paragraphs in order to enhance text cohesion. Students are encouraged to share their writing with their peers and teachers, discussing features of their texts which are particularly appropriate to the task. Linguistic structures and features Students develop the confidence and ability to use the structures and features appropriate for texts used for a variety of purposes. Students are introduced to and use an extending range of descriptive and specialised vocabulary in their writing. Teachers deconstruct and model writing texts to assist students in recognising and controlling text features, for example, introductory topic sentences, and discuss how to use them. Teachers introduce students to vocabulary to assist them in discussing their writing. Students discuss elements of their writing at sentence, paragraph and text level with a partner or in a group. Strategies Students write independently and participate in shared writing activities where they are given the opportunity to plan and generate ideas together. They plan, write, revise and check their texts, making corrections where necessary. They correct for meaning first and then correct surface features. Teachers provide support and plan tasks that are within the range of the students’ English language development, involve familiar content, or content that they can access through their own reading or research. Teachers provide assistance if necessary with appropriate language structures and features, and confer on editing and redrafting. Students are encouraged to assist each other, to use computers to refine presentation of writing and to use spelling aids, such as word banks, dictionaries, thesauruses and word charts. Teachers make explicit the criteria required for a writing task and use these for discussion in writing conferences, and to assist students to assess the effectiveness of their own writing.

Secondary: Stage SL

Speaking and listening

Communication Through a variety of classroom activities students learn the basic vocabulary and structures required to interact with others in English in the classroom. Teachers introduce students to new language, accepting and encouraging a range of verbal and non-verbal responses and so creating a classroom environment where students gain confidence in their ability to be effective learners and to communicate through spoken English. Initially the teaching focus is on the English that students need to satisfy immediate needs, for instance, to interact and communicate with others and carry out essential tasks in the classroom and the community, such as providing important information, shopping or using public transport. The teaching focus then shifts towards introducing students to some of the basic oral English associated with subject-based curriculum. Through teacher modelling, students are introduced to and given opportunities to hear and use English for a wide variety of purposes. They are supported to understand these texts through the extensive use of visual materials, such as pictures and diagrams, and through non-verbal language. Students are also introduced to basic aspects of the English phonological system, such as stress, rhythm and intonation. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Students at stage SL will already have an understanding of how to use their first language appropriately according to context, for example by using different forms for addressing people, depending on their relationships to them. Through regular classroom interaction and specific activities, such as simple role-plays and cued dialogue, teachers help to raise the students’ awareness of how English varies according to situational factors, for example by pointing out simple polite forms that students may use in different situations. Students become aware that the various language patterns they produce or respond to, deliver different types of messages, such as instructions, statements, requests and questions. Through planned activities and as opportunities arise, teachers assist students to understand the role of simple common non-verbal behaviours in English, like hand gestures, head movements and eye contact, and how their meanings may change depending on the context of the communication. Linguistic structures and features Through general classroom interaction and specific speaking and listening activities, such as role-play, communicative games, chants and songs, students acquire basic vocabulary and common structures as well as a range of basic formulaic expressions. Teachers model and give feedback to students about features of spoken English, such as volume, speed, rhythm and intonation. As students use their limited English repertoire to interact in the classroom, they experiment with their existing English in different learning contexts. Teachers support this experimentation, through encouragement and by negotiating and responding to the meanings students attempt to express. Where appropriate, teachers model the correct form rather than relying overly on error correction, which can stifle communication. Strategies In structured classroom tasks such as pair work and group activities, students develop confidence in communicating with their limited English repertoire. By fostering a supportive classroom environment and encouraging students to experiment with their developing English, teachers encourage students to take risks in their language learning and discover that making ‘errors’ is part of the learning process. Students memorise simple formulaic expressions and imitate models provided by the teacher and are supported to record what is learnt in written English. Students look for patterns in English structures through such activities as information-gap or problem solving. Teachers also provide students with strategies for communicating, for instance, using appropriate formulaic expressions for initiating conversations, turn-taking strategies and simple strategies for negotiating meaning.

Reading

Communication Teachers introduce students to a wide range of simple repetitive texts, including age-appropriate factual and fictional books and teacher-produced material. Teachers ensure that texts reflect the natural use of English in a natural way that will help to enhance and make connections with students’ oral repertoires. They ensure that students are provided with culturally appropriate, simple, supportive texts where the meaning is well supported by illustrations and layout. Through reading activities involving these simple texts related to known content and based on familiar oral English, teachers help students develop an understanding of how English is written. These simple texts help students understand the way sounds are represented in English through letters and combinations of letters. Students read everyday texts, such as signs, logos and other environmental print. Texts containing illustrations and diagrams provide students with additional clues for finding meaning. Students choose texts for their own reading, from a wide range available in the classroom, including, if possible, texts in their first language. Aspects of language Contextual understanding By working with simple texts, such as jointly constructed class texts about a shared experience or books with repetitive structures, teachers help students associate common text types with their associated purpose and audience. Through reading, browsing through or listening to accessible texts read aloud, students are guided to talk simply about who the texts are written for and what they are written about, for example the difference between a simple fictional story and a jointly constructed recount of a recent experience. By working with, and talking about the written messages they see around them, students are made aware of environmental texts and the messages they convey, and teachers use these texts for beginning reading activities. They also guide students through activities which help them extract information presented in a variety of formats, such as timetables, charts or diagrams. Linguistic structures and features Through structured reading activities and by focusing on familiar meaningful words that are part of students’ repertoires, teachers help students to develop skills to read new words. They provide practice identifying initial or final sounds of familiar words, identifying words through their shape and comparing simple unpunctuated texts with the corresponding punctuated texts. Activities such as alphabet games, phonemic awareness activities, or word and sentence matching, focus students onto the word and letter level of texts, and help them to begin to understand the sound–letter relationships of English. As students begin to recognise phrases/formulas, single words or letters in texts, teachers help them to focus on these by recording them on word lists, sound charts and personal dictionaries. These are used for reference when reading and writing. Strategies Through classroom reading, shared reading activities and individual reading, teachers help students develop basic skills in reading simple texts. Teachers introduce strategies to read new words based on the students’ developing understanding of the letter–sound relationships of English. They encourage students to make predictions about the content of texts by looking at illustrations, photographs or diagrams before listening to texts read aloud and ask students to test and compare their predictions with what they understood from the text. Through modelled reading, students are shown how to draw on their background knowledge of the text, their developing knowledge of the conventions of written English, and their knowledge of the shape and sounds of words to read. Activities based on simple familiar material, such as jointly constructed texts, support the development of general skills, such as recognising commonly encountered ‘chunks’ of written English.

Writing

Communication Teachers introduce students to early experiences in writing in English that will help them understand the writing process. They introduce writing activities, such as writing labels for classroom items, labelling simple diagrams and writing jointly constructed class texts. By being involved in classroom activities, such as shared story writing, labelling, chart making and drawing diagrams, students learn that people write to record observations and ideas. Teachers introduce many different writing tasks so students can begin to learn some of the conventions of written English. Aspects of language Contextual understanding The teacher acts as a scribe for students in individual or group writing activities, to highlight the connection between spoken and written text. Wall stories, like shared books, help to highlight conventions of print – that English is written from left to right, that words are separated by spacing, and that groups of ideas are separated using punctuation. Teachers also introduce some of the conventions of organising ideas into a written text. Activities such as brainstorming ideas, words or phrases or collecting word groups help students organise their ideas when they write texts of their own. Teachers consistently model writing in class for a range of authentic purposes, such as making a birthday card, writing a sign or writing a shared account of an activity. They talk simply with students about the audience they are writing for, and what they are writing about. Linguistic structures and features Teachers encourage students to write new texts based on their developing understanding of the English letter–sound system, as well as relying on copying words or phrases from environmental print or texts they have read. Teachers ask students to dictate the basic ideas and key vocabulary items of a text and then scribe it for them. Teachers also guide handwriting development by demonstrating correct letter formation and providing models for students to observe, copy and trace. Handwriting activities also help to raise awareness of some of the conventions associated with the layout of written text, such as differentiating between upper and lower case and spacing between words. Strategies Teachers introduce strategies for using language structures taught in class and ways of working out the letter–sound correspondences of familiar and unfamiliar words. This helps students to write their own ideas or work through a more controlled writing activity with familiar material. Teachers discuss and brainstorm ideas for writing with students and their peers. Students are encouraged to elaborate on their own texts with illustrations or with additional text scribed by the teacher. Teachers assist students to develop systematic ways of recording words and language resources through the use of, for example, a journal, a class-produced dictionary, a class-produced topic book, a letter–sound book. Students use classroom charts, lists and displays to find words to include in their writing. Teachers explicitly introduce correct letter formations, including appropriate starting points for letters. Students are also introduced to a wide range of implements and materials for writing and drawing. Students use some basic computer word processing applications for writing, presenting or illustrating their written texts.

Secondary: Stage S1

Speaking and listening

Communication Teachers use a variety of classroom activities to teach the basic vocabulary and structures students need to interact in English. Initially the teaching focus relates to immediate needs, for instance to interact and communicate with others and carry out essential tasks in the classroom and the community, such as providing important information, shopping or using public transport. The teaching focus then shifts towards introducing students to some of the basic spoken English associated with subject-based curriculum. Through language models provided by the teacher, students are introduced to and given opportunities to hear and use English for a wide variety of purposes. Students are also introduced to basic aspects of the English phonological system, such as stress, rhythm and intonation. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Students at S1 will already have an understanding of how to use their first language appropriately according to context, for example by using different forms for addressing people depending on their relationships to them. Through regular classroom interaction and specific activities, such as simple role-plays and supported dialogue, teachers help to raise the students’ awareness of how English varies according to situational factors, for example by pointing out simple polite forms suited to specific contexts. As students produce or respond to different types of messages, such as instructions, statements, requests and questions, they become aware of the language patterns that are associated with these different functions. Through planned activities and as opportunities arise, teachers help students understand the role of simple non-verbal language in English, for instance hand gestures, head movements and eye contact, and how their meanings may change depending on the context of the communication. Linguistic structures and features Through general classroom interaction and specific speaking and listening activities, such as role-play, communicative games, chants and songs, teachers introduce and practise basic vocabulary, simple sentence level structures and a range of basic formulaic expressions. Teachers model and give feedback to students about specific aspects of pronunciation, for example, volume, speed, rhythm and intonation. Where appropriate, teachers model the correct form rather than relying on error correction which can stifle communication. Strategies Through structured classroom tasks, such as pair work and group activities, teachers help students develop confidence communicating with their limited English repertoire. By fostering a supportive classroom environment, teachers encourage students to take risks and accept that making ‘errors’ is part of the learning process. Teachers introduce simple formulaic expressions students can memorise and provide models for them to imitate. Teachers help students record what is learnt using their existing written English or their first language. Teachers also provide students with strategies for communicating, for instance using appropriate formulaic expressions for initiating conversations, turn-taking strategies and simple strategies for negotiating meaning.

Reading

Communication Teachers help students draw on their understanding of reading developed from their first language as they read short, simple factual and fictional texts in English. Teachers help the students understand the texts through appropriate prereading, during-reading and post-reading activities. At this stage the texts read generally involve vocabulary and language structures that have been encountered or practised in oral activities and which relate to familiar contexts. These texts include ESL-informed published texts, teacher developed texts and everyday texts, such as signs, charts, lists and tables. Students are also supported to read for gist when using simple authentic texts, for example by reading to find the answers to specific questions provided by the teacher. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Through whole-class activities students become aware of some different ways in which information is organised in texts. Teachers direct students’ attention to whole-text features, such as layout, headings or illustrations and encourage and support students to use these in conjunction with their background knowledge to gain meaning, for example by eliciting students’ understanding or expectations of a text based on the title or supporting illustration. At the sentence level, students are guided to recognise ways in which ideas are organised in English texts, for example, a main idea followed by supporting detail. Linguistic structures and features Through reading activities based on short, familiar texts that have been read aloud and discussed in class, teachers focus on text features at the word, sentence and whole-text level. They indicate how whole-text features, such as text titles, headings or illustrations help predict text content. They highlight the way cohesive devices link ideas both within and between sentences. They practise different ways to present information from texts using a variety of formats, including diagrams, tables or maps. Teachers provide students with a range of activities at the word level and sentence level to develop their understanding of the letter–sound relationships of written English and show how basic punctuation can be used to extract meaning. Strategies Students develop basic strategies for reading a range of simple texts in English and build on their understanding of reading from their first language. Prior to reading a text, students are supported to make predictions about the content, based on their background understanding or textual cues, such as titles or pictures. They are encouraged to check their predictions against the meanings they extract from the text. At the sentence level, activities such as cloze exercises help students develop skills in predicting meanings using content or background knowledge of the text (semantic cues), knowledge of the patterns of English (syntactic cues), and knowledge of sound–letter relationships of English (graphophonic cues).

Writing

Communication Teachers introduce activities to help students write short, simple texts related to immediate-needs topics as well as some simple subject-based texts. Joint teacher-student constructions model some common text types, such as narratives, descriptions and recounts with known and well rehearsed vocabulary and structures. Teachers set writing tasks on familiar topics that enable students to use words and expressions encountered and practised in previous speaking, listening and reading activities. Teachers support the development of student writing through raising their awareness of word order, simple cohesive devices and ways of ordering and sequencing short sentences into a coherent simple text. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Teachers provide students with a range of purposes and audiences for their writing through experiences, such as class projects, responses to reading, excursions and accessible TV programs or video. Teachers point out and model appropriate ways of responding to these different tasks in writing to show in simple terms how the language of written texts in English varies according to its purpose and audience. Students are also encouraged to draw on appropriate personal ideas and experience as subject matter for their writing and are made aware of how some aspects of spoken English, such as pausing and intonation, are reflected in the use of simple punctuation in writing. Linguistic structures and features Teachers model and demonstrate a range of short, simple texts, that respond to particular classroom demands and audiences. They show students how to use simple cohesive devices, such as conjunctions and pronouns as well as common time markers to link ideas and order or sequence sentences. These whole-text activities are supported by a variety of targeted activities to support students’ understanding of the letter–sound relationships, word order and subject verb agreement in English, as well as simple tenses and punctuation. Strategies Through a range of structured writing activities, students develop simple strategies for communicating through written English. Teachers encourage students to draw on topics and language already encountered in class and to use resources, such as other students, classroom word lists and charts, and bilingual dictionaries. Through modelled writing activities, teachers demonstrate simple writing plans and provide suggestions and examples of how students can link and sequence sentences to produce short but coherent whole texts. Initially, the teaching emphasis is on ensuring that students convey intended meanings rather than a focus on spelling or grammatical accuracy. However, the teacher ensures that students redraft their work and gives selective feedback on aspects, such as spelling and word order. Word processors provide a valuable catalyst for the drafting process by supporting student-teacher conferencing which leads to a product free of teacher corrections. The teacher encourages students to share their writing and exchange ideas by talking with their peers or the teacher in either the first or second language.

Secondary: Stage S2

Speaking and listening

Communication Teachers help students build upon their basic understanding of spoken English to communicate for a widening range of social and academic purposes. Teachers set tasks that draw on the students’ developing knowledge of the vocabulary and language structures of English as well as their understanding of word stress, rhythm and intonation. These tasks contain some degree of unpredictability to challenge students to become more independent users of English. For example, in structured activities, students may be supported to listen for a range of purposes to spoken texts which may involve a change of topic or lack chronological order. In pair or group work activities or through role modelling, students are provided with the English to use when negotiating or clarifying meaning. Students are given a range of activities, where they listen to, question, clarify and report back to the teacher or to other students. Teachers set tasks where students listen to, give and follow instructions, play games, and follow classroom procedures. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Through appropriate classroom activities, such as role-plays, short dialogues and structured listening tasks, teachers help students to develop their awareness of how contextual factors influence the ways English is used and interpreted. Teachers help students extract selected information from accessible spoken or visual texts, for instance teacher instructions, taped dialogues or videos, or accessible CD-ROM materials on topics from across the curriculum. Contextual cues, including visual support, and spoken features, such as stress and intonation are also focused on to assist students to understand. Teachers support students as they learn to use formulaic expressions and subject-specific vocabulary appropriate to the context. Linguistic structures and features Teachers guide students through speaking and listening activities that help them build on and extend the use of their existing vocabulary and structures. Teachers highlight examples of how stress, rhythm and intonation are used to convey and also interpret information in spoken texts. Teachers introduce students to both familiar and unfamiliar language in context as they engage with a greater range of spoken texts from a subject-based curriculum. Students’ understanding of subject-based texts is extended through content material which reflects more complex relationships, placing greater demands on the students as they deal with changes in location, events and characters. Teachers support students to take longer turns in interactive activities through the use of simple conjunctions as well as simple formulaic expressions. Strategies In the classroom context, teachers support the use of creative utterances by providing students with activities requiring them to draw on all their available resources in different ways to respond to or deliver messages. Students are encouraged to use the opportunity of pair and group work for exploratory talk with their peers instead of relying only on teacher guidance. Through activities such as pair or group work, teachers help students develop communicative strategies, for example, asking for clarification, basic paraphrasing and circumlocution. Students learn to use their existing language structures to make longer utterances.

Reading

Communication Teachers introduce an increasingly wide range of basic factual and fictional texts, such as teacher-student produced material, appropriate ESL-informed published texts, including some authentic texts, multimedia materials, and appropriate ESL student web sites. Teachers provide a range of before, during and after reading activities to help students understand texts at the whole-text level as well as the sentence level. In most cases teachers provide familiar texts; however, with support, students also engage in reading activities, such as reading for gist or to extract specific information, using accessible unfamiliar texts. Texts and activities are provided that encourage students to reflect on different purposes for reading, such as learning how to do something, learning about something new or reading for pleasure. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Through whole-class and group activities, teachers help students to extend their understanding of the different ways in which information is organised in written texts in English. Teachers show how features of texts, such as headings, illustrations, indexes and tables of contents can support comprehension. Students are introduced to some basic web site organisation, such as standard features of the web interface and the ways users navigate between pages and sites. Students are encouraged to use background information or expectations based on contextual cues to help them predict meanings in the different texts they encounter. Teachers help students explore the text for meanings beyond the literal level, for example through a range of questions that encourage them to interpret ideas or events in the light of what they know about the text and its context. Linguistic structures and features Using a variety of texts and activities, teachers help students build on the early understandings of how meanings are conveyed through written texts at the whole-text, sentence, and word level. Teachers outline the way texts are structured to access information and gain meaning, for example through the use of heading or paragraphs. They introduce activities which develop student understanding of how ideas are related in texts through the use of cohesive devices, such as related vocabulary (antonyms and synonyms) or reference items and conjunctions. At the word level and sentence level, teachers help students extend their knowledge of the letter–sound relationships of English and build on their early understandings of English punctuation. Strategies Teachers support students as they build upon their first language literacy, and basic reading skills in English, to further develop strategies for reading a range of familiar and some unfamiliar, ESL-appropriate texts. Students continue to build on their understanding of the letter–sound relationships to deduce the meanings of familiar words that they haven’t encountered in the written form. Through pair and group work activities, students are guided through activities which highlight ways of using semantic, syntactic and sound–letter cues to gain meaning from texts. Reading for different purposes is practised, for example, skimming for main ideas and scanning for specific information. With basic subject-based text types, including accessible texts from the World Wide Web, students are supported to draw upon the organisation of the text to gain meaning, for example, using pictures, diagrams or captions to locate information.

Writing

Communication Students are supported to carry out a range of writing activities related to personal and school-based contexts. With teacher support and guidance, they write a range of basic texts following models provided by the teacher. Students write texts relating to personal experiences with some degree of independence, but need extensive modelling and support to write subject-based texts that require text types, such as reports, explanations or procedures. Appropriate multimedia authoring software can help students create and shape imaginative texts. To write at a discourse level, students are guided through a range of activities that focus on the way word order and punctuation structure information in a text, and the manner in which cohesive devices bring unity to a text, indicating relationships, such as cause and effect, time sequence and condition. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Through a range of writing activities, students become familiar with a range of school-based text types. While the students may be familiar with the text type and its purpose in their first language, they need to see how the same kind of text type is usually written in English. Through class discussions, teachers and students engage in joint and modelled constructions of basic subject-based texts, that guide the students’ own writing. Students develop an awareness of the overall structure and the features of the different text types encountered as well as the purposes they fulfil, and the audiences they are usually written for. Linguistic structures and features With appropriate teacher support students carry out a range of writing activities related to personal and school-based contexts. Teachers provide models of common subject-based texts, such as narratives, recounts, descriptions and basic explanations, and focus on their common structures and features. Students draw upon these to structure their own writing and use features appropriate to the text type and the purpose of the writing. Students are shown different ways to link ideas within and between sentences using cohesive devices, such as pronouns, determiners and a range of commonly encountered conjunctions. They also experiment with a range of time markers used for sequencing and ordering sentences. Students also continue to develop their understanding of sentence level features, such as spelling, word order, subject–verb agreement, and experiment with more advanced tenses which have been previously modelled and practised, including continuous or perfect forms. Strategies Through a range of writing activities, students are supported to develop and use a range of basic strategies for communicating through written English. When writing, students draw upon their spoken English repertoire, as well as English encountered in reading activities. Students are encouraged to discuss ideas for their writing with their peers or teachers and are supported to develop simple plans based on the teachers’ model. Students use available resources, such as bilingual dictionaries or sample texts used for reading, to assist them with their writing. Students are encouraged to experiment with their known English and negotiate with the teacher when meanings are unclear. They attempt the spelling of unknown words based on their developing understanding of the letter–sound relationships of English. Students improve their writing through discussing simple plans and redrafting based on discussions or suggested corrections relating to sentence level features, such as subject-verb agreement, as well as aspects of whole-text organisation such as the order of sentences, the use of topic sentences or links between sentences. Word processors provide a valuable catalyst for the drafting process by allowing for changes to text structure and error correction without any corrections appearing on the text.

Secondary: Stage S3

Speaking and listening

Communication Through paired and group work activities, teachers provide practice in listening, questioning and responding, in a range of situations. Activities, such as information gap and group problem-solving tasks provide intensive oral practice in the speaking and listening skills necessary for involvement in the mainstream classroom and in the school community. Teachers help students extract useful information from spoken English through varied listening and viewing tasks, involving for example, teacher and student presentations, dictogloss, ESL accessible videos, and audiotaped excerpts. (T) Teachers support students by explaining key terms, and providing relevant background information as a context for the listening tasks. Teachers set questions guiding students to predict likely content, locate relevant facts and key ideas. Through modelled examples and feedback, students are guided to present and participate in class debates or formal talks on personal and school-based topics. Aspects of language Contextual understanding With teacher modelling, students practise particular conventions for interacting in the classroom, for example, appropriate ways to ask for clarification, for assistance or for further information. In class and then in groups students practise the basic language of discussion on issues and texts from across the curriculum. Students study the components of formal talks and their role. The talks provide an opportunity to discuss features of spoken language, such as eye contact, and how to engage and interest the audience. Through discussion of the way in which a range of spoken texts are usually organised, students are assisted to consider the way they listen for information in extended texts, to get the gist, or listen for particular information. Teachers help students organise their presentations, taking some account of purpose and audience. Linguistic structures and features Teachers integrate teaching of pronunciation, stress, rhythm and intonation with regular classwork. For example, an excerpt from a feature film video is used to highlight and practise specific features, such as changes in intonation. When explaining new words and phrases from a topic teachers underline the stress and, where appropriate, relevant use of intonation. With teacher guidance, using hand signals or similar unintrusive correcting techniques, students are individually encouraged to focus on clear pronunciation. Through intensive short sessions on pronunciation and through focused activities, students practise and develop an awareness of English patterns of stress, rhythm and intonation. With guidance they also practise clear pronunciation of key vowel and consonant sounds in English, focusing first on sounds that may impede communication, such as the clear articulation of final consonants and appropriate word stress. Videos of the students’ (and teachers’) formal presentations provide a resource for demonstrating non-verbal language, such as eye contact and gesture. With teacher guidance, through small-group discussion and pair work students practise a range of question types. Strategies Through introductory activities and focus questions, students are taught to actively engage with accessible spoken or audiovisual texts on familiar topics; for example, by discussing what they already know about the topic, by asking for clarification, by predicting the content and likely key terms, and by determining specific questions to help focus listening. Students learn to work cooperatively in groups and to adopt specific roles. In partnership with the teacher students learn to monitor their developing control of English pronunciation and focus on specific areas for attention. In the security of paired and small-group activities students are encouraged to experiment with English and take risks when speaking.

Reading

Communication With teacher guidance, students study a range of accessible imaginative and factual texts, including narratives, short poems, biographies, informative texts, non-script material, such as diagrams, tables and graphs. Teachers progressively introduce students to a range of accessible mainstream texts, including short extracts from across the curriculum and the media and texts from the World Wide Web. Students learn to extract basic information from these texts and are encouraged to develop a thoughtful response through class and small-group discussion of key issues, events, characters. Teachers support the students and their level of engagement with the text by previewing relevant background information and key terms and through a range of before, during, and after reading activities focusing on specific aspects of the text. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Teachers select texts taking account of the cultural backgrounds and interests of the students as well as their need to learn terms and concepts of Australian culture and the language of the subject areas. As a way in to texts, students are invited to relate their own cultural knowledge and experience, identifying differences and similarities. With teacher guidance, students discuss the way texts are written and set out to reflect their purpose and audience, for example, the way a popular magazine or a World Wide Web site has different writing style and visual layout from a novel. Linguistic structures and features Through directed study of text samples, students learn to increase their awareness of how cohesion is established in English, for example the use of conjunctions and reference items. With teacher support they draw up an outline of the structure of a text in use across the curriculum to study its overall structure. They examine the role of diagrams, tables, etc. in conveying meaning and use this understanding to predict the likely content and features of the text. At the whole-text level students consider available contextual cues to predict content, for example, headings (including chapter headings), subheadings, headlines, diagrams, captions, etc. Strategies With teacher support through cloze and other activities, students learn to read before and well beyond a difficult word, or phrase. They are taught common affixes and roots from Greek and Latin to help guess the meaning of words. They develop strategies to predict meaning across sentences and paragraphs by tracking reference items and cues from cohesive markers, syntax and semantic cues from the surrounding text. Through practice in skimming and scanning they move beyond the word-by-word reading process to adjust their rate of reading to a particular task at hand. Activities such as library trails (a set of questions about library use) help students develop research skills, including the use of search engines to find some basic information on the World Wide Web. Through structured activities, such as note-taking exercises in a factual text or constructing a timeline in a narrative, students learn to organise information as they read and to search for relevance, relating new information to what they already know.

Writing

Communication Teachers guide students to extend the length of their writing to produce organised imaginative and factual texts, responses to literary texts and short responses to issues. With guidance through teacher modelling and group work, students study some of the text types that are in use (often in combination) in subject English and across the curriculum, for example, exposition, discussion, informative report, summaries including note form, procedure, explanation, personal recount and narrative. These sample texts may include accessible mainstream texts, teacher-developed texts, accessible texts from the World Wide Web or texts written by class members. Appropriate multimedia authoring software can help students create and shape imaginative texts. Online conference facilities and discussion groups on the Internet provide valuable opportunities for students to improve the fluency of their writing and extend their range and control of English syntax in a supportive atmosphere. Teachers help improve student writing skills through focusing on both the sentence and whole-text level. Most writing tasks become a natural extension of the students’ class work and interests, for example arising as a response to a class text, the study of a topic, or project work. Students are then more able to appreciate the context and purpose of their writing, and the content and vocabulary will be more familiar. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Through modelled examples, class discussion and group work, teachers outline the purpose, audience, and likely content of a range of text types and the way they are structured. Students discuss the ways in which the text’s purpose is reflected by its structure, specific language features and content. Structures of argument and discussion are explicitly modelled and practised at the whole-text and paragraph level to demonstrate the development of ideas expected in Australian classrooms. Linguistic structures and features Teachers help students vary their writing to express a range of meanings consistent with the text type under study. They model specific grammatical forms, for instance the use of modals (may, might etc.) and expressions of probability (rarely, certainly etc.) when expressing an opinion, the use of direct speech to enliven a narrative, the use of present tense, appropriate adjectives and simple relative clauses when describing a scene or character. Teachers provide simple explicit explanation of introduced grammatical terms and concepts and recycled practice through activities in a meaningful context with additional support exercises focusing on form. Through exercises, such as cloze, dictogloss, etc. teachers help students improve their manipulation of English syntax at the sentence and paragraph level. Key elements of punctuation are revised and practised. At the whole-text level, students learn the structures and features of a range of text types. They study and practise the use of conjunctions and other cohesive devices to make links between and within paragraphs and signpost key shifts in direction. Strategies Through modelling and consistent guidelines, teachers ensure that students plan all extended writing tasks covering a range of text types. With the support of pairs and small groups, students practise brainstorming possible approaches to a writing task depending on its type and purpose, for example the use of timelines in a narrative or the selection of appropriate content in an informative report. Teachers model the use of topic sentences as a way of focusing a paragraph. Students are encouraged to review and substantially redraft their work, focusing on the clarity of communication through the writing’s organisation and use of syntax and showing some awareness of purpose and audience. Word processors provide a valuable catalyst for the drafting process by allowing for quick changes to text structure and quick and efficient error correction.

Secondary: Stage S4

Speaking and listening

Communication Teachers encourage students to extend their oral repertoire through pair and small-group work, and formal situations, such as debates and class talks, and through the exploration and discussion of texts, issues and tasks. With teacher guidance, students gain practice with informative material, for example short extracts from videos from other subject areas. Teachers prepare students by previewing the text, and clarifying terms and appropriate background information. Students are set tasks of graded difficulty to help them interpret and organise their response and to help them listen or view for relevant information and ideas. Where the content and speakers are more familiar, teachers lead students towards a deeper level of interpretation, for example groups of students use guide questions to determine the speaker’s stance on the issue presented. They listen to and, to some degree, evaluate other viewpoints, question, justify and persuade using their developing repertoire of English. Aspects of language Contextual understanding When listening to or viewing audiovisual material, students focus on particular features that help support their interpretation of the text, such as identifying the voice or intent of the speaker. With teacher support, students participate in class and group discussion, debates, role-play etc. where they learn to identify bias in spoken English and how it is expressed and how speech can be modified to provide a more balanced account. Linguistic structures and features Students are generally more confident of their ability to communicate in familiar contexts and are therefore better able to concentrate on the fluency of their speech. Through focused activities, including paired or group problem-solving activities, teachers support students as they learn and practise basic language of analysis, interpretation and hypothesis. After modelling, students deliver extended talks on factual and interpersonal topics, using an appropriate structure. Through targeted exercises, teachers emphasise the qualities that affect fluency in English, such as pausing, stress, rhythm and intonation. In partnership with their teacher, students target specific sounds for attention, for example inadequate pronunciation of final consonants, an inability to distinguish between long and short vowels, or difficulty with consonant clusters, such as ‘it’s’ or ‘excuse’. Strategies Students practise extracting information from difficult texts, for example, by completing a table or taking notes on key ideas from a short extract of a video. They are encouraged to focus on areas of pronunciation that may impede communication. Students vary significantly in their ability to pronounce English depending, in part, on the influence of the first language. At this stage each student may need an individual approach, which will vary depending on language needs and confidence. Where appropriate, the teacher encourages and supports students to take an active role in monitoring and reviewing their own speech.

Reading

Communication For class study and independent reading, teachers provide students with a range of mainstream imaginative and factual texts that are both accessible and appropriate to the mainstream classroom. These include narratives, short poems, biographies, informative texts from across the curriculum, accessible articles from the news media and from the World Wide Web. Teachers support students by previewing the texts and providing relevant background information. Through discussion and guided activities, such as three-level reading guides, teachers lead students to a deeper understanding and interpretation of the texts studied. A range of before, during and after reading activities help develop the level of engagement with the text. Students are required to interpret non-script material, such as diagrams, graphs and tables in the context of articles studied and learn to extract some relevant information from more demanding factual texts. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Teachers introduce short accessible articles from the media to examine some ways issues and events are presented. With teacher guidance, students examine different treatments of the same news item, looking at clues to the writer’s perspective in the written text and also from a range of surrounding features, such as pictures and headlines. They discuss the way bias is presented in English, for example, through emotive language, exaggeration or over-generalisation. For imaginative texts, students discuss issues, actions and events from their own and from the writer’s perspective. They are encouraged to share comparisons with creative texts from their own culture. With teacher guidance, students examine the language style and presentation of accessible World Wide Web pages and discuss these in terms of purpose and audience. Linguistic structures and features With teacher guidance, students examine the organisational structure and specific language features of extended texts, such as a short novel or textbooks from across the curriculum. Students do further work on cohesion in texts, for example by tracking reference items in reading texts. They study texts in use across the curriculum, reflecting on how specific features of a text and its organisation help the text achieve its purpose. Strategies When students are engaging with difficult texts, teachers set achievable tasks, such as finding a few specific facts, or, in groups, identifying whether a speaker is in favor or against a proposition. In this way students develop strategies for dealing with unfamiliar texts they may not fully understand. Through study of news media articles and information from the World Wide Web, teachers help students practise reading for gist, using a range of cues in the writing and in non-script material and subheadings. For larger texts, teachers draw on advanced organisers, such as the graphic outline to help students learn to preview texts, gaining an overall picture of the way a text may be organised and the direction it is likely to follow. With teacher support and in pairs and small groups, students investigate topics and issues of interest that require a research component. They are guided to draw from a range of library reference material, including World Wide Web search engines. Starting from what they already know, students learn to realistically refine the questions they will be investigating taking account of purpose and audience and of the limitations of resources available, including time.

Writing

Communication With teacher guidance, students produce an extensive range of extended texts, imaginative and factual, taking some account of purpose and audience. Students are encouraged to develop their responses to texts on familiar and unfamiliar topics and issues through writing that explores different aspects of a topic and different points of view. When writing personal and imaginative texts, students are shown ways to improve the clarity of their writing and to view their writing from the readers’ perspective. Email and other online Internet resources enable ESL students to develop their writing skill and widen their repertoire of English vocabulary and expressions. Aspects of language Contextual understanding Before writing, and with teacher guidance, students discuss the purpose of a range of text types and what the likely demands of the audience might be. They examine the nature of bias and the many ways it can be expressed. They look critically at drafts of their own and past students’ creative and factual writing to review how effectively they reflect the text’s purpose and audience. With teacher guidance, they examine texts, for example, from magazines, online discussion groups and web sites to discuss basic differences in style between different mediums. Linguistic structures and features Teachers provide a range of authentic factual and imaginative text types from across the curriculum for students to study the writers’ use of text structure and language features, for instance the use of the passive voice when explaining a manufacturing process, the use of modality in a discussion or the frequency of noun groups in a factual report. In the context of the study of class issues, texts and topics, students are required to use a range of school-based language functions, for example, to identify, compare, contrast, show causality, justify, explain, describe, argue. With teacher guidance, students use their increasing knowledge of grammatical structures to improve the versatility and quality of their writing, for example to qualify statements, to express uncertainty, or a range of emotions. They learn to punctuate direct speech. By focusing on sentence and paragraph development and links between paragraphs using cohesive markers, teachers help students to organise and extend the length of their writing while still maintaining a sense of cohesion, coherence and purpose. Strategies At this level, teachers encourage students to make significant changes to their first draft of a writing task in response to feedback on how well the writing is organised, the clarity of expression and the way the text reflects its purpose. Students are supported in the kinds of language-based tasks required in further study in English and across the curriculum. Using advanced organisers, such as the data chart, teachers help students locate information on a familiar topic, gather it together and then present the material in an organised way. Students learn to independently search for information in the library using a range of resources including information and communication technologies. ESL students in middle secondary also require guidance on the conventions for using and quoting reference material, and what constitutes a student’s own work.